How do children develop morality? Do all children develop moral understanding in the same way? These questions have long intrigued parents, philosophers, religious leaders, and psychologists. Moral development refers to how children learn to distinguish right from wrong and develop moral reasoning. Lawrence Kohlberg proposed one of the most influential theories of moral development, explaining how moral thinking evolves through different stages.
Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development explains how moral reasoning progresses through six stages across three levels. The theory describes how children initially follow rules to avoid punishment or gain rewards, while moral thinking may gradually develop into more complex ethical reasoning during adulthood. However, not everyone reaches the highest stages of moral development.
Introduction
Lawrence Kohlberg (1927-1987), an American psychologist, developed one of the most influential theories in moral psychology during the 1950s and 1960s. Building upon Jean Piaget’s earlier work on cognitive development, Kohlberg proposed that moral reasoning develops through a series of stages, progressing from simple, self-centered thinking to complex, principled reasoning. His theory suggests that moral development is closely tied to cognitive development and that individuals progress through these stages in a fixed, sequential order.
Methodology
Kohlberg’s theory emerged from his doctoral research, where he presented moral dilemmas to children and adults, asking them to determine the right course of action and justify their reasoning. The most famous of these is the “Heinz Dilemma,” which asks whether a man should steal an unaffordable drug to save his dying wife. Kohlberg was less interested in whether participants said “yes” or “no” and more focused on the reasoning behind their answers, as this revealed their underlying moral framework. [Ref]
The Three Levels and Six Stages
Kohlberg organized moral development into three broad levels, each containing two stages, resulting in six stages total.
Level 1: Pre-Conventional Morality
This level is typical of children under nine years old, though some adults remain at this level. Moral reasoning is based on direct consequences to oneself rather than internalized societal values.
Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment Orientation
At this earliest stage, individuals view rules as fixed and absolute. Morality is determined by avoiding punishment. A child might reason that stealing is wrong simply because one would get punished for it, not because of any deeper ethical consideration. The focus is entirely on the physical consequences of an action.
Stage 2: Individualism and Exchange
Children begin to recognize that different individuals have different viewpoints and interests. Moral decisions become based on self-interest and reciprocity “you scratch my back, I’ll scratch yours.” Right and wrong are judged by what serves one’s own needs, though fairness begins to emerge as a concept, primarily through the lens of equal exchange.
Level 2: Conventional Morality
This level typically emerges in adolescence and represents the reasoning of most adults. Morality is now based on adherence to social norms, laws, and expectations. The individual moves from self-interest to conforming to societal roles and maintaining social order.
Stage 3: Good Interpersonal Relationships (“good boy-good girl” orientation)
Individuals seek to live up to social expectations and roles. They value trust, caring, and loyalty to others as a basis for moral judgments. Actions are evaluated based on intentions—being motivated by good intentions and maintaining good relationships becomes important. Approval from others is a significant motivator.
Stage 4: Maintaining Social Order
At this stage, the individual becomes concerned with society as a whole. Moral reasoning is based on understanding social order, law, justice, and duty. Rules and laws exist to maintain societal function, and breaking them is wrong because it undermines social order. This stage emphasizes obligation to authority and following rules to maintain a functioning society, regardless of individual circumstances.
Level 3: Post-Conventional Morality
This level, achieved by a minority of adults, represents abstract reasoning about moral principles. Individuals at this level recognize that laws and rules are social constructs that can be evaluated and potentially changed based on universal ethical principles.
Stage 5: Social Contract and Individual Rights
The individual becomes aware that while rules and laws might exist for the good of the greatest number, there are times when they may not promote the general welfare or protect individual rights. People recognize that laws are social contracts meant to be created democratically to protect individual rights, and laws that don’t serve these purposes can and should be changed through legitimate processes. This stage balances societal needs with individual rights.
Stage 6: Universal Principles
This final stage represents reasoning based on abstract, universal ethical principles rather than concrete rules. Individuals at this stage follow self-chosen ethical principles, even if these conflict with laws. Justice, equality, and human dignity become the guiding forces, and moral reasoning transcends specific societal rules. Kohlberg noted that few people consistently operate at this stage—historical figures like Mahatma Gandhi and Martin Luther King Jr. are often cited as examples of individuals who reasoned at this level.
Application: The Heinz Dilemma
To illustrate these stages, consider responses to the Heinz Dilemma:
- Stage 1: “Heinz shouldn’t steal the drug because he’ll go to jail.”
- Stage 2: “Heinz should steal the drug because he needs his wife to help him, and stealing won’t hurt him much.”
- Stage 3: “Heinz should steal the drug because he’s a good husband and people will understand his love for his wife.”
- Stage 4: “Heinz shouldn’t steal because laws exist to protect property, and society would fall into chaos if people just took what they wanted.”
- Stage 5: “Heinz should steal the drug because the right to life supersedes the pharmacist’s right to profit.”
- Stage 6: “Heinz should steal the drug because preserving human life is a fundamental moral principle that outweighs property rights.”
Criticisms of the Theory
Despite its influence, Kohlberg’s theory has faced substantial criticism:
Gender Bias: Carol Gilligan, a former student of Kohlberg, argued that his theory was biased toward male reasoning patterns, which emphasize justice and rules. She proposed that women often employ an “ethics of care,” focusing on relationships and compassion, which Kohlberg’s framework undervalued.
Cultural Bias: Critics argue the theory reflects Western, individualistic values, potentially disadvantaging collectivist cultures where community and relationships play a more central role in morality.
Moral Reasoning vs. Moral Behavior: The theory focuses on how people reason about morality rather than how they actually behave. Someone might demonstrate sophisticated moral reasoning yet still act unethically.
Overemphasis on Justice: Some scholars argue the theory neglects other important moral dimensions, such as compassion, virtue, and care.
Conclusion
Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development remains a cornerstone of developmental psychology, providing a framework for understanding how moral reasoning evolves from childhood through adulthood. While it has faced legitimate criticism regarding gender and cultural biases, it continues to influence fields including education, psychology, and philosophy. The theory’s emphasis on the progression from self-interest to principled ethical reasoning offers valuable insights into human moral development, even as researchers continue to refine and challenge its assumptions.
Other Theories That Explain Moral Development
Kohlberg isn’t the only psychologist to theorize how we develop morally. There are several other theories of moral development.
- Piaget’s Theory of Moral Development
- Moral Foundations Theory: By Jonathan Haidt, Craig Joseph, and Jesse Graham
- Normative Theories of Moral Behavior
Take This Pop Quiz
Test your knowledge of Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development with this quick and free pop quiz.
