Bihar Chemistry Honours B.Sc Syllabus 2026

Bihar Chemistry Honours B.Sc Syllabus 2026 provides students with a structured overview of undergraduate Chemistry studies, covering major areas such as Physical Chemistry, Inorganic Chemistry, Organic Chemistry, Analytical Chemistry, practical laboratory work, spectroscopy, thermodynamics, chemical kinetics, coordination chemistry, stereochemistry, biomolecules and other important topics. The exact syllabus and course structure can vary between universities, particularly under the implementation of the NEP-based four-year undergraduate programmes.

Students can use this page to check Chemistry Honours/Major course structure, semester-wise subjects, theory papers, practical papers, laboratory topics, recommended books and examination-related information. College availability should always be checked against the relevant university’s current 2026 admission/affiliation list, because the colleges offering Chemistry may differ by university and academic session.

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Physical Chemistry

1. Gaseous States

• Postulates of kinetic theory of gases, deviation from ideal behavior, van der Waals equation of state.
• Critical Phenomena: PV isotherms of real gases, continuity of states, the isotherms of van der Waals equation, relationship between critical constants and van der Waals constants, the law of corresponding states, reduced equation of state.
• Molecular velocities: Root mean square, average and most probable velocities. Qualitative discussion of the Maxwell’s distribution of molecular velocities, collision number, mean free path and collision diameter. Liquification of gases (based on Joule-Thomson effect).

2. Liquid State

• Intermolecular forces, structure of liquids (a qualitative description).
• Structural differences between solids, liquids and gases.
• Liquid crystals: Difference between lyotropic liquid crystal, solid and liquid. Classification, structure of nematic and cholesteric phases. Thermography and seven segment cell.

3. Solid State

• Definition of space lattice, unit cell.
• Laws of crystallography – (i) Law of constancy of interfacial angles (ii) Law of rationality of indices (iii) Law of symmetry. Symmetry elements in crystals.
• X-ray diffraction by crystals. Derivation of Bragg equation. Determination of crystal structure of NaCl, KCl and CsCl (Laue’s method and powder method)

4. Chemical Kinetics and Catalysis

• Chemical kinetics and its scope, rate of a reaction, factors influencing the rate of reaction – concentration, temperature, pressure, solvent, light, catalyst. Concentration dependence of rates, mathematical characteristics of simple chemical reactions – zero order, first order, second order, pseudo order, half life and mean life. Determination of the order of reaction – differential method, integration method of half life period and isolation method.
• Radioactive decay as a first order phenomenon.
• Experimental methods of chemical kinetics: conductometric, potentiometric, optical methods, polarimetry and spectrophotometer.
• Theories of chemical kinetics: effect of temperature on rate of reaction, Arrhenius equation, concept of activation energy.
• Simple collision theory based on hard sphere model, transition state theory (equilibrium hypothesis). Expression for the rate constant based on equilibrium constant and thermodynamic aspects.
• Catalysis, characteristics of catalysed reactions, classification of catalysis, miscellaneous examples.

5. Colligative properties of dilute solutions

• Ideal and Non ideal solutions. The thermodynamics derivations of Raoult’s law relative lowering vapour pressure, osmotic pressure, elevation in boiling point (Ebulli oscopy), depression in freezing point (Cryoscopy).
• Determination of molecular mass of a solute by: (i) Berkeley-Hartley’s method (π); (ii) Beckmann’s method (ΔTᵦ) and (iii) Landsberger’s method (ΔTᵦ), abnormal molecular mass, degree of dissociation and association of solutes, Numerical problems.

6. Thermodynamics-I

• Definition of thermodynamic terms: system, surroundings etc. Types of systems, intensive and extensive properties. State and path functions and their differentials. Thermodynamic process. Concept of heat and work.
• First Law of Thermodynamics: statement, definition of internal energy and enthalpy. Heat capacity, heat capacities at constant volume and pressure and their relationship. Joule’s law – Joule-Thomson coefficient and inversion temperature. Calculation of w, q, dU & dH for the expansion of ideal gases under isothermal and adiabatic conditions for reversible process.
• Thermochemistry: standard state, standard enthalpy of formation; Hess’s Law of heat summation and its applications. Heat of reaction at constant pressure and at constant volume, heat of neutralization. Bond dissociation energy and its calculation from thermo-chemical data, temperature dependence of enthalpy. Kirchhoff’s equation.

7. Thermodynamics-II

• Second law of thermodynamics: need for the law, different statements of the law. Carnot cycle and its efficiency, Carnot theorem. Thermodynamic scale of temperature.
• Concept of entropy: entropy as a state function, entropy as a function of V & T, entropy as a function of P & T, entropy change in physical change, Clausius inequality, entropy as a criteria of spontaneity and equilibrium. Entropy change in ideal gases and mixing of gases.
• Third law of thermodynamics: Nernst theorem, statement and concept of residual entropy, evaluation of absolute entropy from heat capacity data.
• Gibbs and Helmholtz functions; Gibbs function (G) and Helmholtz function (A) as thermodynamic quantities, A & G as criteria for thermodynamic equilibrium and spontaneity, their advantage over entropy change. Variation of G and A with P, V and T.

8. Chemical Equilibrium

• Equilibrium constant and free energy. Thermodynamic derivation of law of mass action. Le Chatelier’s principle.
• Reaction isotherm and reaction isochore – Clapeyron equation and Clausius -Clapeyron equation, applications.

9. Phase Equilibrium

• Statement and meaning of the terms – phase, component and degree of freedom, derivation of Gibbs phase rule, phase equilibria of one component system – water, CO₂ and S systems.
• Phase equilibria of two component system – solid-liquid equilibria, simple eutectic – Bi-Cd, Pb-Ag systems, desilverisation of lead.
• Solid solutions – compound formation with congruent melting point (Mg-Zn) and incongruent melting point, (NaCl-H₂O), (FeCl₃-H₂O) and CuSO₄-H₂O) system. Freezing mixtures, eutectic – dry ice.
• Liquid – liquid mixtures – Ideal liquid mixtures, Raoult’s and Henry’s law. Non-ideal system – azeotropes – HCl-H₂O and ethanol – water systems.
• Partially miscible liquids – Phenol-water, trimethylamine-water, nicotine-water systems. Lower and upper consolute temperature. Effect of impurity on consolute temperature.
• Immiscible liquids, steam distillation.
• Nernst distribution law – thermodynamic derivation, applications.

10. Electrochemistry-I

• Electrical transport -conduction in metals and in electrolyte solutions, specific conductance and equivalent conductance, measurement of equivalent conductance, variation of equivalent and specific conductance with dilution.
• Migration of ions and Kohlrausch law, Arrhenius theory of electrolyte dissociation and its limitations, weak and strong electrolytes, Ostwald’s dilution law, its uses and limitations. Debye-Huckel-Onsager’s equation for strong electrolytes (elementary treatment only).
• Transport number, definition and determination by Hittorf method and moving boundary method.
• Applications of conductivity measurements: determination of degree of dissociation, determination of Kₐ of acids, determination of solubility product of a sparingly soluble salt, conductometric titrations.

11. Electrochemistry-II

• Types of reversible electrodes – gas-metal ion, metal-metal ion, metal-insoluble salt-anion and redox electrodes. Electrode reactions, Nernst equation, derivation of cell E.M.F. and single electrode potential, standard hydrogen electrode-reference electrodes- standard electrode potential, sign conventions, electrochemical series and its significance.
• Electrolytic and Galvanic cells – reversible and irreversible cells, conventional representation of electrochemical cells.
• EMF of a cell and its measurements. Computation of cell EMF. Calculation of thermodynamic quantities of cell reactions (ΔG, ΔH and K), polarization, over potential and hydrogen overvoltage.
• Concentration cell with and without transport, liquid junction potential, concentration cells, valency of ions, solubility product and activity coefficient, potentiometric titrations.
• Definition of pH and pKₐ, determination of pH using hydrogen, quinhydrone and glass electrodes, by potentiometric methods.
• Buffers – mechanism of buffer action, Henderson-Hazel equation. Hydrolysis of salts.
• Corrosion – types, theories and methods of combating it.

12. Elementary Quantum Mechanics

• Black-body radiation, Planck’s radiation law, photoelectric effect, heat capacity of solids, Bohr’s model of hydrogen atom (no derivation) and its defects, Compton effect.
• De Broglie hypothesis, the Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle, Sinusoidal wave equation, Hamiltonian operator, Schrödinger wave equation and its importance, physical interpretation of the wave function, postulates of quantum mechanics, particle in a one dimensional box.
• Schrödinger wave equation for H-atom, separation into three equations (without derivation), quantum numbers and their importance, hydrogen like wave functions, radial wave functions, angular wave functions.
• Molecular orbital theory, basic ideas – criteria for forming M.O from A.O, construction of M.O’s by LCAO – H₂⁺ ion, calculation of energy levels from wave functions, physical picture of bonding and antibonding wave functions, concept of σ, σ*, π, π* orbitals and their characteristics. Hybrid orbitals – sp, sp², sp³; calculation of coefficients of A.O.’s used in these hybrid orbitals.
• Introduction to valence bond model of H₂, comparison of M.O. and V.B. models.

13. Spectroscopy

Introduction: electromagnetic radiation, regions of the spectrum, basic features of different spectrometers, statement of the Born-Oppenheimer approximation, degrees of freedom.

Rotational Spectrum

Diatomic molecules. Energy levels of a rigid rotor (semi-classical principles), selection rules, spectral intensity, distribution using population distribution (Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution) determination of bond length, qualitative description of non-rigid rotor, isotope effect.

Vibrational Spectrum

Infrared spectrum: Energy levels of simple harmonic oscillator, selection rules, pure vibrational spectrum, intensity, determination of force constant and qualitative relation of force constant and bond energies, effect of anharmonic motion and isotope on the spectrum, idea of vibrational frequencies of some functional groups.

Raman Spectrum: concept of polarizability, pure rotational and pure vibrational Raman spectra, selection rules.

Electronic Spectrum

Concept of potential energy curves for bonding and antibonding molecular orbitals, qualitative description of selection rules and Franck-Condon principle.

Qualitative description of σ, π- and n M.O., their energy levels and the respective transitions.

14. Photochemistry

Interaction of radiation with matter, difference between thermal and photochemical processes. Laws of photochemistry: Grothus – Draper law, Stark – Einstein law, Jablonski diagram depicting various processes occurring in the excited state, qualitative description of fluorescence, phosphorescence, non-radiative processes (internal conversion, intersystem crossing), quantum yield, photosensitized reactions – energy transfer processes (simple examples).

15. Physical Properties and Molecular Structure

Optical activity, polarization – (Clausius – Mossotti equation), orientation of dipoles in an electric field, dipole moment, induced dipole moment, measurement of dipole moment- temperature method and refractivity method, dipole moment and structure of molecules, magnetic properties -paramagnetism, diamagnetism and ferromagnetics.

16. Solutions, Dilute Solutions and Colligative Properties

• Ideal and non-ideal solutions, methods of expressing concentrations of solutions, activity and activity coefficient.
• Dilute solution, colligative properties, Raoult’s law, relative lowering of vapour pressure, molecular weight determination. Osmosis, law of osmotic pressure and its measurement, determination of molecular weight from osmotic pressure. Elevation of boiling point and depression of freezing point. Thermodynamic derivation of relation between molecular weight and elevation in boiling point and depression in freezing point. Experimental methods for determining various colligative properties.
• Abnormal molar mass, degree of dissociation and association of solutes.

Inorganic Chemistry

1. Atomic Structure

• Idea of de Broglie matter waves, Heisenberg uncertainty principle, atomic orbitals, Schrodinger wave equation, significance of ψ and ψ², quantum numbers, radial and angular wave functions and probability distribution curves, shapes of s, p, d orbitals.
• Aufbau and Pauli exclusion principles, Hund’s multiplicity rule. Electronic configurations of the elements, effective nuclear charge.

2. Periodic Properties

Atomic and ionic radii, ionization energy, electron affinity and electronegativity – definition, methods of determination or evaluation, trends in periodic table and applications in predicting and explaining the chemical behaviour.

3. Chemical Bonding

• (A) Covalent Bond – Valence bond theory and its limitations, directional characteristics of covalent bond, various types of hybridization and shapes of simple inorganic molecules and ions. Valence shell electron pair repulsion (VSEPR) theory to NH₃, H₃O⁺, SF₄, ClF₃, ICl₂⁻ and H₂O. MO theory, homonuclear and heteronuclear (CO and NO) diatomic molecules, multicenter bonding in electron deficient molecules, bond strength and bond energy, percentage ionic character from dipole moment and electronegativity difference.
• (B) Ionic Solids – Ionic structures, radius ratio effect and coordination number, limitation of radius ratio rule, lattice defects, semiconductors, lattice energy and Born-Haber cycle, solvation energy and solubility of ionic solids, polarizing power and polarisability of ions, Fajan’s rule. Metallic bond-free electron, valence bond and band theories.
• (C) Weak Interactions – Hydrogen bonding, van der Waals forces

4. s-Block Elements

Comparative study, diagonal relationships, salient features of hydrides, solvation and complexation tendencies including their function in biosystems, an introduction to alkyls and aryls.

5. p-Block Elements

Comparative study (including diagonal relationship) of groups 13-17 elements, compounds like hydrides, oxides, oxyacids and halides of groups 13-16, hydrides of boron-diborane

5. Environmental Chemistry

• Ozone Depletion in stratosphere, Causes and remedies. Green house effects and its consequences as acid rain, photo-chemistry, smog.
• and higher boranes, borazine, borohydrides, fullerenes, carbides, fluorocarbons, silicates (structural principle), tetrasulphur tetranitride, basic properties of halogens, interhalogens and polyhalides.

6. Chemistry of Noble Gases

Chemical properties of the noble gases, chemistry of xenon, structure and bonding in xenon compounds.

7. Chemistry of Elements of First Transition Series

• Characteristic properties of d-block elements.
• Properties of the elements of the first transition series, their binary compounds and complexes illustrating the relative stability of their oxidation states, coordination number and geometry.

8. Chemistry of Elements of Second and Third Transition Series

General characteristics, comparative treatment with their 3d-analogues in respect of ionic radii, oxidation states, magnetic behaviour, spectral properties and stereochemistry.

9. Oxidation and Reduction

Use of redox potential data – analysis of redox cycle, redox stability in water – Frost, Latimer and Pourbaix diagrams. Principles involved in the extraction of the elements.

10. Coordination Compounds

Werner’s coordination theory and its experimental verification, effective atomic number concept, chelates, nomenclature of coordination compounds, isomerism in coordination compounds, valence bond theory of transition metal complexes.

11. Chemistry of Lanthanide Elements

Electronic structure, oxidation states and ionic radii and lanthanide contraction, complex formation, occurrence and isolation, lanthanide compounds.

12. Chemistry of Actinides

General features and chemistry of actinides, chemistry of separation of Np, Pu and Am from U, similarities between the later actinides and the later lanthanides.

13. Acids and Bases

Arrhenius, Bronsted-Lowry, the Lux-Flood, solvent system and Lewis concepts of acids and bases.

14. Non-aqueous Solvents

Physical properties of a solvent, types of solvents and their general characteristics, reactions in non-aqueous solvents with reference to liquid NH₃ and liquid SO₂.

16. Hard and Soft Acids and Bases (HSAB)

Classification of acids and bases as hard and soft. Pearson’s HSAB concept, acid-base strength and hardness and softness. Symbiosis, theoretical basis of hardness and softness, electronegativity and hardness and softness.

17. Metal-ligand Bonding in Transition Metal Complexes

Limitations of valence bond theory, an elementary idea of crystal-field theory, crystal field splitting in octahedral, tetrahedral and square planar complexes, factors affecting the crystal-field parameters.

18. Magnetic Properties of Transition Metal Complexes

Types of magnetic behaviour, methods of determining magnetic susceptibility, spin-only formula. L-S coupling, correlation of μs and per values, orbital contribution to magnetic moments, application of magnetic moment data for 3d-metal complexes.

19. Electron Spectra of Transition Metal Complexes

Types of electronic transitions, selection rules for d-d transitions, spectroscopic ground states, spectrochemical series. Orgel-energy level diagram for d¹ and d⁹ states, discussion of the electronic spectrum of [Ti(H₂O)₆]³⁺ complex ion.

20. Thermodynamic and Kinetic Aspects of Metal Complexes

A brief outline of thermodynamic stability of metal complexes and factors affecting the stability, substitution reactions of square planar complexes.

21. Organometallic Chemistry

Definition, nomenclature and classification of organometallic compounds. Preparation, properties, bonding and applications of alkyls and aryls of Li, Al, Hg, Sn and Ti, a brief account of metal-ethylene complexes and homogeneous hydrogenation, mononuclear carbonyls and nature of bonding in metal carbonyls.

22. Bioinorganic Chemistry

Essential and trace elements in biological processes, metalloporphyrins with special reference to haemoglobin and myoglobin. Biological role of alkali and alkaline earth metal ions with special reference to Ca²⁺. Nitrogen fixation.

23. Silicones and Phosphazenes

Silicones and phosphazenes as examples of inorganic polymers, nature of bonding in triphosphazenes.

Organic Chemistry

1. Structure and Bonding

Hybridization, bond lengths and bond angles, bond energy, localized and delocalized chemical bond, van der Waals interactions, inclusion compounds, clathrates, charge transfer complexes, resonance, hyperconjugation, aromaticity, inductive and field effects, hydrogen bonding.

2. Mechanism of Organic Reactions

• Curved arrow notation, drawing electron movements with arrows, half-headed and double-headed arrows, homolytic and heterolytic bond breaking. Types of reagents – electrophiles and nucleophiles. Types of organic reactions, Energy considerations.
• Reactive intermediates – carbocations, carbanions, free radicals, carbenes, arynes and nitrenes (with examples). Assigning formal charges on intermediates and other ionic species.
• Methods of determination of reaction mechanism (product analysis, intermediates, isotope effects, kinetic and stereochemical studies).

3. Stereochemistry of Organic Compounds

• Concept of isomerism. Types of isomerism.
• Optical isomerism – elements of symmetry, molecular chirality, enantiomers, stereogenic centre, optical activity, properties of enantiomers, chiral and achiral molecules with two stereogenic centres, diastereomers, threo and erythro diastereomers, meso compounds, resolution of enantiomers, inversion, retention and racemization.
• Relative and absolute configuration, sequence rules, D & L and R & S systems of nomenclature.
• Geometric isomerism – determination of configuration of geometric isomers, E & Z system of nomenclature, geometric isomerism in oximes and alicyclic compounds.
• Conformational isomerism – conformational analysis of ethane and n-butane; conformations of cyclohexane, axial and equatorial bonds, conformation of mono substituted cyclohexane derivatives. Newman projection and Sawhorse formulae, Fischer and flying wedge formulae.
• Difference between configuration and conformation.

4. Alkanes and Cycloalkanes

• IUPAC nomenclature of branched and unbranched alkanes, the alkyl group, classification of carbon atoms in alkanes, isomerism in alkanes, sources, methods of formation (with
• special reference to Wurtz reaction, Kolbe reaction, Corey-House reaction and decarboxylation of carboxylic acids), physical properties and chemical reactions of alkanes.
• Mechanism of free radical halogenation of alkanes: orientation, reactivity and selectivity.
• Cycloalkanes – nomenclature, methods of formation, chemical reactions, Baeyer’s strain theory and its limitations. Ring strain in small rings (cyclopropane and cyclobutane), theory of stainless rings. The case of cyclopropane ring: banana bonds.

5. Alkenes, Cycloalkenes, Dienes and Alkynes

• Nomenclature of alkenes, methods of formation, mechanisms of dehydration of alcohols and dehydrohalogenation of alkyl halides, regioselectivity in alcohol dehydration. Saytzeff rule, Hofmann elimination, physical properties and relative stabilities of alkenes.
• Chemical reactions of alkenes – mechanisms involved in hydrogenation, electrophilic and free radical additions, Markownikoff’s rule, hydroboration-oxidation, oxymercuration-reduction. Epoxidation, ozonolysis, hydration, hydroxylation and oxidation with KMnO₄. Polymerization of alkenes. Substitution at the allylic and vinylic positions of alkenes. Industrial applications of ethylene and propene.
• Methods of formation, conformation and chemical reactions of cycloalkenes.
• Nomenclature and classification of dienes: isolated, conjugated and cumulated dienes. Structure of allenes and butadiene, methods of formation, polymerization. Chemical reactions – 1,2 and 1,4 additions, Diels-Alder reaction.
• Nomenclature, structure and bonding in alkynes. Methods of formation. Chemical reactions of alkynes, acidity of alkynes. Mechanism of electrophilic and nucleophilic addition reactions, hydroboration-oxidation, metal-ammonia reductions, oxidation and polymerization.

6. Arenes and Aromaticity

• Nomenclature of benzene derivatives. The aryl group. Aromatic nucleus and side chain. Structure of benzene: molecular formula and Kekule structure. Stability and carbon-carbon bond lengths of benzene, resonance structure, MO picture.
• Aromaticity: the Huckel rule, aromatic ions.
• Aromatic Electrophilic substitution – general pattern of the mechanism, role of σ- and π-complexes. Mechanism of nitration, halogenation, sulphonation, mercuration and Friedel-Crafts reaction. Energy profile diagrams. Activating and deactivating substituents, orientation and ortho/para ratio. Side chain reactions of benzene derivatives. Birch reduction.
• Methods of formation and chemical reactions of alkylbenzenes, alkynylbenzenes and biphenyl.

7. Alkyl and Aryl Halides

• Nomenclature and classes of alkyl halides, methods of formation, chemical reactions. Mechanisms of nucleophilic substitution reactions of alkyl halides, Sᴺ2 and Sᴺ1 reactions with energy profile diagrams.
• Polyhalogen compounds: chloroform, carbon tetrachloride.
• Methods of formation of aryl halides, nuclear and side chain reactions. The addition-elimination and the elimination-addition mechanisms of nucleophilic aromatic substitution reactions.
• Relative reactivities of alkyl halides vs allyl, vinyl and aryl halides. Synthesis and uses of DDT and BHC.

8. Electromagnetic Spectrum: Absorption Spectra

• Ultraviolet (UV) absorption spectroscopy – absorption laws (Beer-Lambert law), molar absorptivity, presentation and analysis of UV spectra, types of electronic transitions, effect of conjugation. Concept of chromophore and auxochrome. Bathochromic, hypsochromic, hyperchromic and hypochromic shifts. UV spectra of conjugated enes and enones.
• Infrared (IR) absorption spectroscopy – molecular vibrations, Hooke’s law, selection rules, intensity and position of IR bands, measurement of IR spectrum, fingerprint region, characteristic absorptions of various functional groups and interpretation of IR spectra of simple organic compounds.

9. Alcohols

• Classification and nomenclature.
• Monohydric alcohols – nomenclature, methods of formation by reduction of aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids and esters. Hydrogen bonding. Acidic nature. Reactions of alcohols.
• Dihydric alcohols – nomenclature, methods of formation, chemical reactions of vicinal glycols, oxidative cleavage [Pb(OAc)₄ and HIO₄] and pinacol-pinacolone rearrangement.
• Trihydric alcohols – nomenclature and methods of formation, chemical reactions of glycerol.

10. Phenols

Nomenclature, structure and bonding. Preparation of phenols, physical properties and acidic character. Comparative acidic strengths of alcohols and phenols, resonance stabilization of phenoxide ion. Reactions of phenols – electrophilic aromatic substitution, acylation and carboxylation. Mechanisms of Fries rearrangement, Claisen rearrangement, Gattermann synthesis, Hauben-Hoesch reaction, Lederer-Mannasse reaction and Reimer-Tiemann reaction.

11. Ethers and Epoxides

• Nomenclature of ethers and methods of their formation, physical properties. Chemical reactions – cleavage and autoxidation, Zeisel’s method.
• Synthesis of epoxides. Acid and base-catalyzed ring opening of epoxides, orientation of epoxide ring opening, reactions of Grignard and organolithium reagents with epoxides.

12. Aldehydes and Ketones

• Nomenclature and structure of the carbonyl group. Synthesis of aldehydes and ketones with particular reference to the synthesis of aldehydes from acid chlorides, synthesis of aldehydes and ketones using 1,3-dithianes, synthesis of ketones from nitriles and from carboxylic acids. Physical properties.
• Mechanism of nucleophilic additions to carbonyl group with particular emphasis on benzoin, aldol, Perkin and Knoevenagel condensation. Condensation with ammonia and its derivatives. Wittig reaction. Mannich reaction.
• Use of acetals as protecting group. Oxidation of aldehydes, Baeyer-Villiger oxidation of ketones, Cannizzaro reaction, MPV, Clemmensen, Wolff-Kishner, LiAlH₄ and NaBH₄ reductions. Halogenation of enolizable ketones.
• An introduction to α,β unsaturated aldehydes and ketones.

13. Carboxylic Acids

• Nomenclature, structure and bonding, physical properties, acidity of carboxylic acids, effects of substituents on acid strength. Preparation of carboxylic acids. Reactions of carboxylic acids. Hell-Volhard-Zelinsky Reaction. Synthesis of acid chlorides, esters and amides. Reduction of carboxylic acids. Mechanism of decarboxylation.
• Methods of formation and chemical reactions of halo acids. Hydroxy acids: malic, tartaric and citric acids.
• Methods of formation and chemical reactions of unsaturated monocarboxylic acids.
• Dicarboxylic acids: methods of formation and effect of heat and dehydrating agents.

14. Carboxylic Acid Derivatives

• Structure and nomenclature of acid chlorides, esters, amides (urea) and acid anhydrides. Relative stability of acid derivatives. Physical properties, interconversion of acid derivatives by nucleophilic acyl substitution.
• Preparation of carboxylic acid derivatives, chemical reactions. Mechanisms of esterification and hydrolysis (acidic and basic).

15. Organic Compounds of Nitrogen

• Preparation of nitroalkanes and nitroarenes. Chemical reactions of nitroalkanes. Mechanisms of nucleophilic substitution in nitroarenes and their reductions in acidic, neutral and alkaline media. Picric acid.
• Halonitroarenes: reactivity. Structure and nomenclature of amines, physical properties. Stereochemistry of amines. Separation of a mixture of primary, secondary and tertiary amines. Structural features affecting basicity of amines. Amine salts as phase-transfer catalysts. Preparation of alkyl and aryl amines (reduction of nitro compounds, nitriles), reductive amination of aldehydic and ketonic compounds. Gabriel-phthalimide reaction, Hofmann bromamide reaction.
• Reactions of amines, electrophilic aromatic substitution in aryl-amines, reactions of amines with nitrous acid. Synthetic transformations of aryl diazonium salts, azo coupling.

16. Spectroscopy – 10 Hrs

Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy.

Proton magnetic resonance (¹H NMR) spectroscopy, nuclear shielding and deshielding, chemical shift and molecular structure, spin-spin splitting and coupling constants, areas of signals, interpretation of PMR spectra of simple organic molecules such as ethyl bromide, ethanol, acetaldehyde, 1,2-tribromoethane, ethyl acetate, toluene and acetophenone.

Problems pertaining to the structure elucidation of simple organic compounds using UV, IR and PMR spectroscopic techniques.

17. Organometallic Compounds – 4 Hrs

• Organomagnesium compounds: the Grignard reagents-formation, structure and chemical reactions.
• Organozinc compounds: formation and chemical reactions.
• Organolithium compounds: formation and chemical reactions.

18. Organosulphur Compounds – 4 Hrs

Nomenclature, structural features, Methods of formation and chemical reactions of thiols, thioethers, sulphonic acids, sulphonamides and sulphaguanidine.

19. Heterocyclic Compounds – 8 Hrs

Introduction: Molecular orbital picture and aromatic characteristics of pyrrole, furan, thiophene and pyridine. Methods of synthesis and chemical reactions with particular emphasis on the mechanism of electrophilic substitution. Mechanism of nucleophilic substitution reactions in pyridine derivatives. Comparison of basicity of pyridine, piperidine and pyrrole.

Introduction to condensed five and six-membered heterocycles. Preparation and reactions of indole, quinoline and isoquinoline with special reference to Fisher indole synthesis, Skraup synthesis and Bischler-Napieralski synthesis. Mechanism of electrophilic substitution reactions of indole, quinoline and isoquinoline.

20. Organic Synthesis via Enolates – 6 Hrs

Acidity of α-hydrogens, alkylation of diethyl malonate and ethyl acetoacetate. Synthesis of ethyl acetoacetate: the Claisen condensation. Keto-enol tautomerism of ethyl acetoacetate.

Alkylation of 1,3-dithianes, Alkylation and acylation of enamines.

21. Carbohydrates – 8 Hrs

Classification and nomenclature. Monosaccharides, mechanism of osazone formation, interconversion of glucose and fructose, chain lengthening and chain shortening of aldoses. Configuration of monosaccharides. Erythro and threo diastereomers. Conversion of glucose into mannose. Formation of glycosides, ethers and esters. Determination of ring size of monosaccharides. Cyclic structure of D(+)-glucose. Mechanism of mutarotation.

Structures of ribose and deoxyribose.

An introduction to disaccharides (maltose, sucrose and lactose) and polysaccharides (starch and cellulose) without involving structure determination.

22. Amino Acids, Peptides, Proteins and Nucleic Acids – 6 Hrs

Classification, structure and stereochemistry of amino acids. Acid-base behavior, isoelectric point and electrophoresis. Preparation and reactions of α-amino acids.

Structure and nomenclature of peptides and proteins. Classification of proteins. Peptide structure determination, end group analysis, selective hydrolysis of peptides. Classical peptide synthesis, solid-phase peptide synthesis. Structures of peptides and proteins. Levels of protein structure. Protein denaturation/renaturation.

Nucleic acids: introduction. Constituents of nucleic acids. Ribonucleosides and ribonucleotides. The double helical structure of DNA.

23. Fats, Oils and Detergents – 2 Hrs

Natural fats, edible and industrial oils of vegetable origin, common fatty acids, glycerides, hydrogenation of unsaturated oils. Saponification value, iodine value, acid value. Soaps, synthetic detergents, alkyl and aryl sulphonates.

24. Synthetic Polymers – 4 Hrs

• Addition or chain-growth polymerization. Free radical vinyl polymerization, ionic vinyl polymerization, Ziegler-Natta polymerization and vinyl polymers.
• Condensation or step growth polymerization. Polyesters, polyamides, phenol formaldehyde resins, urea formaldehyde resins, epoxy resins and polyurethanes.
• Natural and synthetic rubbers.

24. Synthetic Dyes – 8 Hrs

Colour and constitution (electronic concept). Classification of dyes. Chemistry and synthesis of Methyl orange, Congo red, Malachite green, Crystal violet, Phenolphthalein, Fluorescein, Alizarin and Indigo.

Lab Course

Inorganic Chemistry

Semimicro Analysis – cation analysis, separation and identification of ions from Groups I, II, III, IV, V of analytical group.

Calibration of fractional weights, pipettes and burettes. Preparation of standard solutions. Dilution – 0.1 M to 0.001 M solutions.

Quantitative Analysis

Volumetric Analysis

(a) Determination of acetic acid in commercial vinegar using NaOH
(b) Determination of alkali content – antacid tablet using HCl.
(c) Estimation of calcium content in chalk as calcium oxalate by permanganometry.
(d) Estimation of hardness of water by EDTA.
(e) Estimation of ferrous and ferric by dichromate method.
(f) Estimation of copper using thiosulphate.

Gravimetric Analysis

Analysis of Cu as CuSCN and Ni as Ni (dimethylglyoxime).

Synthesis and Analysis

• (a) Preparation of sodium trioxalato ferrate (III), Na₃[Fe(C₂O₄)₃] and determination of its composition by permanganometry.
• (b) Preparation of Ni-DMG complex, [Ni(DMG)₂].
• (c) Preparation of copper tetraammine complex, [Cu(NH₃)₄]SO₄.
• (d) Preparation of cis- and trans- bisoxalato chromate(III) ion.

Instrumentation

Colorimetry:

(a) Job’s method (b) Mole-ratio method

Adulteration – Food stuffs
Effluent analysis, water analysis.

Solvent Extraction:

Separation and estimation of Mg(II) and Fe(III)

Ion Exchange Method:

Separation and estimation of Mg(II) and Zn(II).

Organic Chemistry

Laboratory techniques

Calibration of Thermometer

80-82° (Naphthalene), 113.5-114° (Acetanilide),
132.5-133° (Urea), 100° (Distilled Water)

Determination of melting point

Naphthalene 80-82°, Benzoic acid 121.5-122°
Urea 132.5-133°, Succinic acid 184.5-185°
Cinnamic acid 132.5-133°, Salicylic acid 157.5-158°
Acetanilide 113.5-114°, m-Dinitrobenzene 90°
p-Dichlorobenzene 52°, Aspirin 135°

Determination of boiling points

Ethanol 78°, Cyclohexane 81.4°, Toluene 110.6°, Benzene 80°

Mixed melting point determination

Urea-Cinnamic acid mixture of various compositions (1:4, 1:1, 4:1)

Distillation

Simple distillation of ethanol-water mixture using water condenser

Distillation of nitrobenzene and aniline using air condenser.

Crystallization

• Concept of induction of crystallization
• Phthalic acid from hot water (using fluted filter paper and stemless funnel)
• Acetanilide from boiling water
• Naphthalene from ethanol
• Benzoic acid from water

Laboratory Techniques

A. Thin Layer Chromatography

Determination of Rf values and identification of organic compounds.

• (a) Separation of green leaf pigments (spinach leaves may be used).
• (b) Preparation and separation of 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazones of acetone, 2-butanone, hexan-2- and 3-one using toluene and light petroleum (40:60).
• (c) Separation of a mixture of dyes using cyclohexane and ethyl acetate (8:5:1.5).

B. Paper Chromatography: Ascending and Circular

Determination of Rf values and identification of organic compounds.

• (a) Separation of a mixture of phenylalanine and glycine. Alanine and aspartic acid. Leucine and glutamic acid. Spray reagent – ninhydrin.
• (b) Separation of a mixture of D, L – alanine, glycine, and L-Leucine using n-butanol:acetic acid:water (4:1:5). Spray reagent – ninhydrin.

Steam Distillation

• Naphthalene from its suspension in water
• Clove oil from cloves
• Separation of o- and p-nitrophenols

Column Chromatography

• Separation of fluorescein and methylene blue
• Separation of leaf pigments from spinach leaves
• Resolution of racemic mixture of (±) mandelic acid

Qualitative Analysis

Analysis of an organic mixture containing two solid components using water, NaHCO₃, NaOH for separation and preparation of suitable derivatives.

Synthesis of Organic Compounds

• (a) Acetylation of salicylic acid, aniline, glucose and hydroquinone. Benzoylation of aniline and phenol.
• (b) Aliphatic electrophilic substitution
  • Preparation of iodoform from ethanol and acetone.
• (c) Aromatic electrophilic substitution

Nitration

Preparation of m-dinitrobenzene
Preparation of p-nitroacetanilide

Halogenation

Preparation of p-bromoacetanilide
Preparation of 2,4,6-tribromophenol

(d) Diazotization/coupling

Preparation of methyl orange and methyl red

(e) Oxidation

Preparation of benzoic acid from toluene

(f) Reduction

Preparation of aniline from nitrobenzene
Preparation of m-nitroaniline from m-dinitrobenzene.

Stereochemical Study of Organic Compounds via Models

• A. R and S configuration of optical isomers.
• B. E and Z configuration of geometrical isomers.
• C. Conformational analysis of cyclohexanes and substituted cyclohexanes.

PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

Chemical Kinetics

1. To determine the specific reaction rate of the hydrolysis of methyl acetate/ethyl acetate catalyzed by hydrogen ions at room temperature.
2. To study the effect of acid strength on the hydrolysis of an ester.
3. To compare the strengths of HCl and H₂SO₄ by studying the kinetics of hydrolysis of ethyl acetate.
4. To study kinetically the reaction rate of decomposition of iodide by H₂O₂.

Distribution Law

1. To study the distribution of iodine between water and CCl₄.
2. To study the distribution of benzoic acid between benzene and water.

Colloids

1. To prepare arsenious sulphide sol and compare the precipitating power of mono-, bi- and trivalent anions.

Viscosity, Surface Tension

1. To determine the percentage composition of a given mixture (non interacting systems) by viscosity method.
2. To determine the viscosity of amyl alcohol in water at different concentrations and calculate the excess viscosity of these solutions.
3. To determine the percentage composition of a given binary mixture by surface tension method (acetone & ethyl methyl ketone).

Transition Temperature

1. Determination of the transition temperature of the given substance by thermometric/dilatometric method (e.g. MgCl₂.4H₂O/SrBr₂.2H₂O).

Phase Equilibrium

1. To study the effect of a solute (e.g. NaCl, succinic acid) on the critical solution temperature of two partially miscible liquids (e.g. phenol-water system) and to determine the concentration of that solute in the given phenol-water system.
2. To construct the phase diagram of two component (e.g. diphenylamine -benzophenone) system by cooling curve method.

Thermochemistry

1. To determine the solubility of benzoic acid at different temperatures and to determine ΔH of the dissolution process.
2. To determine the enthalpy of neutralisation of a weak acid/weak base versus strong base/strong acid and determine the enthalpy of ionisation of the weak acid/weak base.
3. To determine the enthalpy of solution of solid calcium chloride and calculate the lattice energy of calcium chloride from its enthalpy data using Born Haber cycle.

Electrochemistry

• (a) To determine the strength of the given acid conductometrically using standard alkali solution.
• (b) To determine the solubility and solubility product of a sparingly soluble electrolyte conductometrically.
• (c) To study the saponification of ethyl acetate conductometrically.
• (d) To determine the ionisation constant of a weak acid conductometrically.
• (e) To titrate potentiometrically the given ferrous ammonium sulphate solution using KMnO₄/K₂Cr₂O₇ as titrant and calculate the redox potential of Fe⁺⁺/Fe⁺⁺⁺ system on the hydrogen scale.

Refractometry, Polarimetry

• (a) To verify law of refraction of mixtures (e.g., of glycerol and water) using Abbe’s refractometer.
• (b) To determine the specific rotation of a given optically active compound.

Molecular Weight Determination

• (a) Determination of molecular weight of a non-volatile solute by Rast method/Beckmann freezing point method.
• (b) Determination of the apparent degree of dissociation of an electrolyte (e.g., NaCl) in aqueous solution at different concentrations by ebullioscopy.

Colorimetry

• To verify Beer – Lambert law for KMnO₄/K₂Cr₂O₇ and determine the concentration of the given solution of the substance.
• KMnO₄/K₂Cr₂O₇ as titrant and calculate the redox potential of Fe⁺⁺/Fe⁺⁺⁺ system on the hydrogen scale.

Refractometry, Polarimetry

• (a) To verify law of refraction of mixtures (e.g., of glycerol and water) using Abbe’s refractometer.
• (b) To determine the specific rotation of a given optically active compound.

Molecular Weight Determination

• (a) Determination of molecular weight of a non-volatile solute by Rast method/Beckmann freezing point method.
• (b) Determination of the apparent degree of dissociation of an electrolyte (e.g., NaCl) in aqueous solution at different concentrations by ebullioscopy.

Colorimetry

To verify Beer – Lambert law for KMnO₄/K₂Cr₂O₇ and determine the concentration of the given solution of the substance.

Important: There is no single syllabus that applies identically to every Bihar university. Therefore, students should match the syllabus with their university and admission session before beginning examination preparation.